Behavioral Therapy

Behavioral Therapy Free Online Research Papers Behaviorism is a school of thought that emphasizes the role of experience in governing behavior (Klein 2008). Behaviorists regard behavior as overtly displayed, measurable, learned physiological reactions to environmental stimuli, rather than of mental state. Psychological disorders are seen as causes of maladaptive learning. Behavioral therapy is one in which the basic tenets of learning theory the elementary principles of how learning occurs are used to change behavior (Kroger 1977). Behaviorist’ research of the processes of learning and unlearning has provided psychology with behaviorist learning theories and models used to explain and modify behavior. Even though the mental state is an essential focus in Clinical Hypnosis, behavior therapy principles play a crucial role in clinical hypnosis. The objective of this essay is to briefly evaluate this role. The application of behavioral therapy techniques in Clinical Hypnosis is referred to as the hypnobehavioral approach. This essay focusses on the works of the main behaviorist theorists Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner and Wolpe, and the principles of their work relevant to hypnobehavioral techniques found within Clinical Hypnosis, in the context of the treatment of phobias, anxiety and unwanted habits. With regards to therapy, the essay will then evaluate the benefits of using either the hypno-behavioral or the behavioral approach. Discussion Behaviorism explains behavior and behavioral modification through a number of learning theories, of which the principle of conditioning forms the basis. Conditioning is the process by which a reflexive response to a stimulus is acquired (Gross 2005). Pavlov ‘s work with dogs involved pairing certain signals (unconditioned stimuli) with the arrival of food (unconditioned stimulus). After a while, the dogs would salivate when the signal (now termed a conditioned stimulus) was given, without the presence of food; they had learned to associate the two events. Salivation became a learned involuntary response to a stimulus. Pavlov termed this learned behavior a Conditioned Reflex or Conditioned Response (CR). He termed the process Classical ‘Conditioning’. If the signal were repeated several times with the food being withheld, the dogs would eventually learn not to salivate. This process of unlearning the CR Pavlov termed ‘extinction’ (Waxman 1989). Th e process of counterconditioning is a more active unlearning of the CR; the intensity of the CR (f.i. anxiety) is reduced by establishing an incompatible response (relaxation) to the conditioned stimulus (a spide, f.e.), until this new S-R connection has been established. Watson applied conditioning to the study of human behavior. He paired a loud noise when presenting a small animal to an infant, resulting in the infant learning to fear the animal. This showed evidence of classical conditioning in humans (Gross 2005). Through one of his students, Watson observed that humans can also unlearn fear towards a particular stimulus if that stimulus is paired with -in this experiment- food. Thorndike and Skinner developed the theory of Operant Conditioning, whereby voluntary behavior is modified by the use of consequences. Thorndike theorised that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated in the future. Skinner researched shaping behavior through positive or negative reinforcement (the response will increase) and punishment (the response will decrease). Extinction’ occurs when a CR will occur with less frequency or ceases altogether as a result of producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences. The work of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner is significant for behavioral and hypnobehavioral therapy as it shows how people could potentially learn anxieties, phobias and habits, and how existing behaviors could be unlearned. Wolpe is another behaviorist whose theories find their application in Clinical Hypnosis. Wolpe (1973) stated that Behavior Therapy is relevant in syndromes that owe their existence to learning. Therefore, as one is not born with f.i. the desire to smoke, in theory, these behaviors can be unlearned. And, if phobias are, as Wolpe (1990) describes, a maladaptive learned habit, then, in theory, conditioning can establish a more appropriate behavior. He developed a therapy called ‘Systematic Desensitisation’, based on his theory of ‘Reciprocal Inhibition’: the inhibition of the action of one neural pathway by the activity of another (Gross 2005). This occurs when a stronger, incompatible response is introduced towards a particular stimulus, competing with and overriding the previous response. Wolpe argued that certain mental states are antagonistic to anxiety. These antagonistic mental states are relaxation, hunger, thirst and sexual arousal. A person cannot feel anxiety when experiencing any one of these antagonistic mental states. Desensitisa tion means becoming insensitive to a stimulus. In hypnobehavioral therapy, these principles are applied when treating maladaptive anxiety-reponses with Wolpe’s technique of ‘Systematic Desensitisation’. In imagination and in trance, the patient is gradually exposed to a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking stimuli, whilst responding with a previously learned relaxation-response, overriding the anxiety. The patient learns to associate the two; a new CR to the anxiety-provoking stimuli has been established. Before testing the responses in vivo, the patient completes the process in trance, communicating with IMR (ideomotor response) to indicate their coping limits whereupon relaxation can be deepened. This behavioral therapy lends itself well to being practiced in trance as a hypnobehavioral therapy and is known as ‘Hypno-desensitisation’ (Joseph 1994). This therapy is very effective in the treatment of phobias and anxiety, as well as for maladaptive habits resulting from anxiety. Hurley (1976) reported a case of severe bridge and height-phobia treated by modified Systematic Desensitisation in hypnosis. In functional anxiety-responses, appropriate traces of anxiety must be left to enhance performance or protect from danger. Learning Theory states that learning occurs through association and repetition. With this in mind, behavior modification can be achieved in hypnosis using a.o the following behavioral techniques, based on the behavioral principles discussed: Aversion Therapy, Flooding, Assertiveness Training, and Massed Practice (and Systematic Desensitisation, as already discussed), hereby applied in the Hypnobehavioral treatment of phobias, anxiety, and unwanted habits. Extinction of a phobia can be caused in hypnosis by the technique of ‘Flooding’: continual imagined exposure to the feared stimulus without the benefit of associated relaxation.The patient experiences the anxiety until the stimulus loses its effect both through physical exhaustion of the patient and the patient learning there are no aversive consequences (Operant Conditioning), becoming desensitised. This is a last resort-technique a.o. due to risk of further traumatising the patient. Aversion Therapy consists of administering an aversive stimulus to inhibit an unwanted response, thereby diminishing the habit strength (Wolpe 1973). Based on Classical Conditioning, the patient will associate the prodromal stimulus with the aversion, resulting in suppression of the undesired behavior. This technique should be a requested, last resort-treatment, after informed consent of the patient has been gained. Massed practice eliminates a habit by continued repetition of the stimulus that triggers the bad habit, or by repeating the habit behavior until it exhausts itself (Wolpe 1973). The patient becomes desensitised to the stimulus or habit. Since imagining a habit could lead to its in vivo expression, this technique is contraindicated where there is risk of damaging the patient. Assertiveness Training is used to treat anxiety-responses (phobias, habits such as stammering) triggered by social stimuli. The patient is desensitised to the feared stimulus, and, on top, depending on behavioral type, diaphragmatic breathing influencing voice-projection and changing of physical posture is taught, which is likely to influence other people’s responses in turn, due to their conditioning. Direct Suggestions can break or reinforce S-R connections. Cues such as as soon as use the principles of Classical Conditioning as a strong association is formed between S-R, reducing risk of extinction. Suggestions for relaxation continually delivered on the exhalation may start to function as an anchor. For all three maladaptive behaviors, hypnobehavioural therapies use Homework, generally incorporating Self-hypnosis and Pseudo-Orientation in Time, to reinforce desired behavior, as well as in vivo-exposure-tasking, breaking the cycle of avoidance of the feared stimulus. Deiker and Pollock (1975) showed how pseudo-orientation in time can be effective in allowing the patient to picture themselves in the future having beaten the phobia. Regular reinforcement through pseudo-orientation in time allows the patient to visualise the goal-orientated, motivating, positive consequences of the desired behavior, based on the principles of Classical and Operant Conditioning, setting a template for success. The most powerful reinforcement comes from experiencing the ultimate in vivo positive consequences of the modified behavior. The patient that has undergone hypnobehavioral therapy, will be thoroughly prepared. Conclusion It can be strongly argued that the hypno-behavioralist approach could be more effective than the behaviorist approach. Kroger (1977) stated that hypnosis facilitates learning. This allows more rapid behavioral modification. As therapy is done in the unconscious mind, bypassing critical conscious interference resulting in increased suggestibility, a suggestion can be accepted in one session, while behavioral therapy relies on repetition to enable conditioning. Hypnosis achieves enhanced feelings and greater depths of relaxation, increasing effectiveness and speed of many techniques. Hypnosis is valuable at treating anxiety as the process of induction and deepening generally relieves anxiety (Hammond, 1990). The hypnobehavioral approach allows the conditioning process to be carefully controlled, offering greater safety for the patient. IMR allows the therapist to check on progress, allowing greater control and respecting the patients coping level, thus reducing risk of retraumatising and breaking rapport. Other advantages of the hypnobehavioral approach include the ability to give post-hypnotic suggestions to encourage behavioral responses to situations that were imagined (Deyoub and Epstein 1977), as well as enhanced scene-visualisation (Deiker and Pollock 1975), increasing effectiveness of Pseudo-orientation in time. Ego-strengthening is a vital ingredient of the hypnobehavioral approach, as it increases the patients coping-ability, and thus success of therapy. Ego-strengthening can help prevent relapses of undesired habits (Rist Watzl 1983). Self-hypnosis empowers the patient by gaining control over their responses, as well as reinforcing conditioning in between sessions; all adding to preparation for in vivo exposure. However, much depends on the patients personality, situation and presenting symptom. Not everyone is a good hypnotic subject, and there are situations where hypnosis is contraindicated. In therapy, we can make best use of either approach when we allow them to cross over and compliment each other. References Carlson N and Buskist W (1997) Psychology: The science of behavior 5th edition Allyn Bacon Deiker TE and Pollock (1975) Integration of Hypnotic and systematic desensitization techniques in the treatment of phobias: a case report American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 17:117 Deyoub P L Epstein S (1977) Short term hypnotherapy for the treatment of flight phobia; A case report American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 19, 251-254 Gross R (2005) Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour Hodder Arnold Hammond D C (1990) Handbook of Hypnotic Suggestion and Metaphors Norton Hurley A D (1976) Unsystematic desensitization using pleasurable images to inhibit anxiety Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 7 Joseph M (1994) Hypno-desensitisation European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1 (2): 14-20 Klein S B (2008) Learning: Principles and Applications 5th edition Sage Publications Kroger W S (1977) Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2nd edition Lippincott Rist F Watlz H (1983) Self-assessment of relapse risk and assertiveness in relation to treatment outcome of female alcoholics Addictive Behaviours 8, 121-127 Waxman, D (Ed) (1989) Hartlands Medical and Dental Hypnosis 3rd Edition Bailliere Tindall Wolpe J (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition Stanford University Press Wolpe J (1973) The Practice of Behavior Therapy 4th edition Pergamon Bibliography Alcock J (2001) Animal Behavior 7th edition Sunderland Domjan M P (2007) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 5th edition Academic Internet Publishers Marks I M (1987) Fears, phobias, and rituals: Panic, anxiety, and their disorders New York Oxford University Press Watson J B (1913) Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it Psychological Review, 20, 158-177Yadav N (2003) A Handbook of Educational Psychology Anmol Publications Research Papers on Behavioral TherapyThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThree Concepts of PsychodynamicStandardized TestingEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalGenetic EngineeringInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andOpen Architechture a white paper

Reflection Paper on politican system essays

Reflection Paper on politican system essays In analyses of different geopolitical struggles, social constructivism has taken into account most, if not all, of the factors associated with state security by starting at the level of the populace of each state. By taking into account internal political struggle, historical oppression, imperialism, and economic factors, social constructivism has overshadowed realist theories of state insecurity by incorporating all aspects of state functions instead of regulating definitions of global insecurity to describing a current global climate. Historical references are interwoven with cultural factors to flesh out a perspective on global interaction that considers everything that forms a state. Two specific examples of insecurity formation that are more accurately explained by social constructivism rather than realism, are the reasons behind interactions that both the Middle East and New Zealand have with the west; these areas will be used to illustrate the overwhelming superiority of soci al constructivism in realistically portraying the global power structure. Political scientists aligning themselves on the side of realism might argue that the theory encompasses all forms of international security and the definitions behind insecurity. Realism is a theory based upon threats inherently existing in the global system without addressing why or where the threats originated from outside of military proximity. Social constructivism thwarts all efforts by realists to describe and explain the global balance of power purely in the realm of states. By formulating a theory based on the cultural explanations behind what causes states to act and therefore cause other states to feel insecure, social constructivists explain the world from a perspective where there are no objective threats. In this realm, the historical and political values shape the present actions of a state and thus the situations that can potentially be threatening. The re...

US Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

US Constitution - Essay Example The President is the head of the Executive branch which is why it is known as the Presidential branch. This branch ensures the proper implementation of Laws as well as administers the affairs of America. The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and is responsible to review Laws. The separation of power among the three branches was conducted according to the principles drafted by John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. The Framers of the constitution had taken the decision to divide in an attempt to ensure that the Federal Government has limited power so that the liberties of U.S. citizens were not vulnerable. Furthermore, the separation of power would enable the three branches to keep a check on each other’s activities. This idea of check and balance would ensure that the absolute rights of the citizens were safeguarded. Therefore, the chance of political leaders ignoring the liberties of citizens is narrowed down to zilch. Furthermore, the three branches work together in a hig hly interactive manner to accomplish a single goal i.e. the prosperity of America. (Levy et al 1986) Hobbes strongly believed that the weak needed protection from the strong and thus power should never reside in the hands of a single entity. Originally, the theorist Baron deMontesquieu had suggested using the idea of power separation to protect the rights of citizens. He considered power to be dangerous and stated that if it concentrates in the hands of a single entity than the liberties of citizens would always be ignored and trampled upon. The three branches interact in a unique way which ensures that if a branch tries to out step the constitution, the other two branches immediately declare the act unconstitutional. Therefore, it ensures that the American Constitution has the ability to self govern its responsibilities and maintain the balance of power. Therefore, this ensures that the

Personality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Personality - Essay Example Several other researches have been conducted by other psychologists that reveal that the big five personality traits indeed impact greatly on the performance of individuals; whether academically or at the place of work. This paper will describe the Big Five personality traits and examine how these traits might contribute positively to the performance of an individual. Buchanan (1998) notes that extraverts are individuals who are outgoing, enthusiastic, sociable, and very confident of themselves. They are also action-oriented and approach the material and social world with a lot of energy. Research also indicates that they prefer being with others because they are very talkative. This kind of trait can indeed contribute positively to the performance of such persons in a various ways. Firstly, it builds strong interpersonal relationships, which is good for an individual’s performance at the workplace. This is because it makes an individual fit in groups easily thereby improving their performance. Littlepage et al. (1995) noted that extraverts participate better in teamwork compared to their introverted counterparts. Another study by Thoms, Moore, and Scot (1996) revealed that extraverts exhibit positive attitudes toward working as a team. This makes them able to accomplish their assigned tasks by engaging others in-group work. They are also said to make good leaders since they are able to rally the group toward achieving set objectives. In addition, they are very creative thereby improving their performance. Conscientiousness pertains to how people regulate, direct, or control impulse. Conscientious people are said to be very responsible, hard working, ambitious, and thorough in whatever they do. This trait can also impact positively on a person’s performance. This is because they are more likely to complete their work easily because

The Microsoft Case Essay Example for Free

The Microsoft Case Essay Why was Microsoft investigated for antitrust behavior? Microsoft is a huge, established, well known computer software manufacturer. They were investigated for antitrust behavior after allegedly abusing their powerful position as the leading suppliers of computer operating systems. Microsoft developed a monopoly market structure because the software which they created was only compatible with Microsoft Windows operating systems. Back when the internet was introduced to the public, Microsoft provided Internet Explorer for free, bundled with Windows operating systems. This was a strategy to eliminate any competitors so they were obviously not perfectly competitive, therefore their case involved imperfect competition. Microsoft’s monopoly was protected by the applications barrier to entry so many competitors feared to try to enter the market. Microsoft also had the ability to increase their prices above marginal costs without losing many customers so they were the price makers, and they also had market power. With that being said, some people may say that Microsoft was a pure monopoly because they were the sole producers of the computer software market and there were no close substitutes. On the other hand, some may say that Microsoft was a natural monopoly because they earned their powerful position by over driving their free market competitors. Before Microsoft grew so big, there were some economic observers that claimed that economies of scale would give Microsoft an unassailable lead that would result in monopoly. (Economides, 2003) I agree that Microsoft was trying to gain monopoly power in the computer software industry due to all of the evidence. Microsoft totally dominated the computer software industry for which they had great strategies to do so. Monopolies can cause many negative effects on our economy such as higher prices, less jobs, it can put other companies out of business, and it can cause producers to be intimidated to enter the same industry. Monopolies can also cause productive inefficiency, allocated inefficiency, diseconomies of scale, and x inefficiency. However, a monopoly can be a good thing, especially for a business. Being the leader or the giant of a particular industry can make owners, managers, and employees feel  very secure with their company. Although a monopoly can cause overpricing, it can also cause price reduction for which would cause other companies to not be able to compete. A monopoly can also be a good thing because the high profit can be used to fund research capital investment spending. Lastly, economies of scale, international competition, and they have the power to be the price makers.

Film Festival Start Ups :: Movies Films Film Festivals Essays

Film Festival Start ups Silicon Valley fairly bursts with life and energy. Everywhere you look new companies, ideas and innovations are on the move and on the rise. Welcome to the land of start ups; small companies with a dream who survive and thrive by skill, luck and sheer tenacity. While the term usually describes high tech concepts, start-ups abound in the Valley - from the small catering company on the comer to the neighborhood printing shop down the street to the local film festival. Yes, that's right - film festival. The Local Scene "Film festival" usually conjures images of stretch limos, glittering starts and rabid paparazzi. Think Cannes or Sundance and you think big budgets, big egos and big-time Hollywood take over. Even smaller, more local festivals have the same overtones. Take the San Francisco International Film Festival. Champion of such "outsider" interests as gay rights, and American Indians long before those concepts became acceptable, SFIFF has mellowed with maturity. Called the "gray lady of local fests" by Dennis Harvey in Variety (June 30, 1997), the SFIFF continues to support international diversity, but with more of a prestigious, elitist atmosphere. The air, apparently, has become more rarified in San Francisco. The second largest film festival in the Bay Area, the Mill Valley Festival has a much more relaxed atmosphere. But, even within this atmosphere, some of the need for mainstream acceptance and money tends to bleed through. Start-ups seem to have two destinies - wonderful success or complete failure, with little middle ground. Other film festivals have ventured into the Silicon Valley before. Most of them had wonderful prospects - at the beginning. The Santa Cruz Festival, the San Jose Film Festival and the Monterey Film Festival, all showed great promise, and none made it to a third year. The Santa Cruz Festival ran from 1982 to 1985, and died of erratic handling. Part of the Santa Cruz charm is its dedication causes, its fierce independence and the feel that comes together with one word - Burkenstocks. Unfortunately, the wild, eccentric and fairly unorganized tendency that adds charm to the city killed the film festival. With wildly erratic programming that could confuse even dedicated fans and the death of festival found Les Goldman in 1986, the Santa Cruz Festival passed into the night. In 1984 San Jose made its stab at a festival. The Cinema of the Fantastic focused on science-fiction and fantasy in the beginning.

College Education Essay

In his essay entitled â€Å"How to Get a College Education†, Jeffrey Hart described the negative effect of Allan Bloom’s book The Closing of the American Mind on his Dartmouth freshman composition course students. These students, Ivy-leaguers and top test scorers, disliked the book’s criticism of their mentality but at the behest of Hart’s impromptu oral quizzing, could not adequately discuss historical figures and events. Although Hart’s freshman class realized the gaps in their education, Hart asks what a real college education is, deplores the advent of specialization, and discusses what does or does not constitute real education. Hart’s concern with education lies with the end result: to produce a citizen. But while Hart gives excellent examples for what subjects he thinks constitute a real education in light of telos, a goal, he implies, rather than specifies, that such an education must cater to proactive, independent thought over ideologically based curriculum and courses. It is through well-rounded, balanced independent thought, Hart argues, that a citizen who can â€Å"recreate his civilization† be made. In the first example, Hart names a curriculum engaged in â€Å"so-called post modernist thought† as something to avoid. It is one of the three â€Å"intellectual fads†, in which the use of the word â€Å"fad† describes a fashionable conduct as enthusiastically followed by a group. This way, Hart indirectly refers to post modernist thought as ideological and lacking in independent thought. The second â€Å"fad† refers to Affirmative Action, which Hart describes as an â€Å"ethos† or â€Å"mentality†. â€Å"Ethos† describes the disposition of a culture or a group, and â€Å"mentality† refers to the set of a person or a group’s mind; and both words conjure a certain blindness that Affirmative Action is supposed to fight. Again, Hart reflects on the dearth of nuance and consideration in such courses. Thirdly, Hart directly mentions ideology when he writes about Marxism, victimology, and identity politics, in which â€Å"scholarly pursuit† is put aside in deference to â€Å"’Studies’ programs†. Hart calls many of these courses â€Å"nonsense† and â€Å"distraction†, but fails to directly write that the single underlying theme of such courses is that because they operate under an ideology, they do not foster free thinking and independent rationality. Hart underlines his position for independent rationality by going on to discuss courses and curricula that he thinks support the end goal of citizenship. Rationality is implied when Hart takes on the subject of requiring a student to know and understanding themes in civilization, a task that maneuvers beyond mere adherence to ideological standards. The student must know his civilization: â€Å".. its important areas of thought, its philosophical and religious controversies, the outline of its history and its major works. The citizen need not know quantum physics, but he should know that it is there and what it means. Once the citizen knows the shape, the narrative, of his civilization, he is able to locate new things — and other civilizations — in relation to it. † By referring to controversies, major works, and narrative, Hart’s stance on education is of well-roundedness, independent thought, and being comfortable on differing sides of issues—a stance not suitable to the ideologically minded. Hart makes connections to Athens and Jerusalem in order to outline how a student may develop her college education. Both Athens and Jerusalem were and are centers of independent thought. Athens refers to the ancient Greek capital in which rational thought, philosophy, and democracy were birthed; it was the birthplace of philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle: Of things useful and necessary only those that are free should be taught, and the young should partake in nothing of a vulgar, mechanical sort or that will render body, soul, or thought unfit for virtue. (Philips 154). Jerusalem, since the reign of Solomon, has been the spiritual capital of three major religions in the world today. Independent thought emerges out of Jerusalem in the guise of Abraham who sought argument with God, and Jesus, who argued and fought with the spiritual leaders– priests and scribes, or Pharisees and Sadducees—of his day (Columbia). A student, dynamically engaged with both scientifically rational and enlighteningly spiritual sides, can succeed in mastering themes of his or her civilization with independence of thought rather than subsisting on an ideological track. Such a student would be able to carve for him or herself a true education with a goal of not being simply educated, but a goal of becoming an involved, active citizen of society, and of a civilization. Hart discusses China as a final example to his essay. Hart reminds us that one could consider China, who has lacked the dynamic interaction between science and spirituality, and who is world renowned for its collectivist culture, one in which independent thought is frowned upon. Again, Hart does not directly mention this, but references it with mentioning China with its â€Å"symbols†: Great Wall and Forbidden City. REFERENCES Jerusalem. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2007. Philips, Peter L. The Politics of Aristotle. University of North Carolina Press, 1997